Alpha-Ketoisovalerate (together with Alpha-Ketoisocaproate and Alpha-Keto-Beta-methylvalerate) requires Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5 and lipoic acid to be metabolized.

Alpha-Ketoisovalerate (together with Alpha-Ketoisocaproate and Alpha-Keto-Beta-methylvalerate) requires Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5 and lipoic acid to be metabolized.

Of the essential amino acids, there are three branchedchain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine).

Unlike most amino acids, the initial step of branchedchain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism does not take place in the liver. They increase rapidly in systemic circulation after protein intake and are readily available for use. Skeletal muscle is where most of the initial catabolism of BCAA takes place using branched-chain aminotransferase enzymes to form α-ketoacids, which are then released from muscles back into the blood to be further metabolized, mainly in the liver.

BCAA act as substrates for protein synthesis, energy production, neurotransmitter production, glucose metabolism, immune response, and many other beneficial metabolic processes.

α-Ketoisovaleric Acid (AKIV) is produced from the essential amino acid valine. It then metabolizes to become succinyl Co-A. AKIV is glucogenic.

α-Ketoisocaproic Acid (AKIC) is produced from leucine and further metabolizes to form acetyl-CoA and acetoacetate. AKIC is ketogenic.

α-Keto-β-Methylvaleric Acid (AKBM) comes from isoleucine, and further metabolizes to form acetylCoA and succinyl-CoA. AKBM is therefore both glycogenic and ketogenic.

These α-ketoacids then require an enzyme complex called branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKD) for further metabolism.

This enzyme complex requires multiple vitamin cofactors, such as vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, and lipoic acid.

Of the essential amino acids, there are three branchedchain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine).

Unlike most amino acids, the initial step of branchedchain amino acid (BCAA) metabolism does not take place in the liver. They increase rapidly in systemic circulation after protein intake and are readily available for use. Skeletal muscle is where most of the initial catabolism of BCAA takes place using branched-chain aminotransferase enzymes to form α-ketoacids, which are then released from muscles back into the blood to be further metabolized, mainly in the liver.

BCAA act as substrates for protein synthesis, energy production, neurotransmitter production, glucose metabolism, immune response, and many other beneficial metabolic processes.

α-Ketoisovaleric Acid (AKIV) is produced from the essential amino acid valine. It then metabolizes to become succinyl Co-A. AKIV is glucogenic.

α-Ketoisocaproic Acid (AKIC) is produced from leucine and further metabolizes to form acetyl-CoA and acetoacetate. AKIC is ketogenic.

α-Keto-β-Methylvaleric Acid (AKBM) comes from isoleucine, and further metabolizes to form acetylCoA and succinyl-CoA. AKBM is therefore both glycogenic and ketogenic.

These α-ketoacids then require an enzyme complex called branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKD) for further metabolism.

This enzyme complex requires multiple vitamin cofactors, such as vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, and lipoic acid.

Alpha-Ketoisovalerate (together with Alpha-Ketoisocaproate and Alpha-Keto-Beta-methylvalerate) requires Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5 and lipoic acid to be metabolized.

α-Ketophenylacetic Acid, also known as phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA), is a urinary metabolite of styrene, toluene, xylenes, and ethylbenzene.

It acts as a urinary marker of recent exposure via inhalation, contact, oral, and others.

The biologic half-life of styrene in humans is fairly short and corresponds with the disappearance of PGA from the urine. Styrene is widely used for synthesis of polymers such as plastics, rubbers, and surface coating. It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry. Styrene is commonly applied in the manufacturing of paints, pigments, and glues. Coexposure to other solvents, like toluene and ethyl acetate is common in workplaces where styrene is a concern. Since toluene and xylene are components of unleaded gasoline, workers at gas stations are at potential risk of exposure, as well as the general population.

Styrene exposure may interfere with peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones by inhibiting conversion of T4 to T3.

It may also affect DNA repair capacity and damage. There are also clinical associations with insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation.

a-Ketophenylacetic Acid (from Styrene) is a toxic breakdown product.

α-Ketophenylacetic Acid, also known as phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA), is a urinary metabolite of styrene, toluene, xylenes, and ethylbenzene.

It acts as a urinary marker of recent exposure via inhalation, contact, oral, and others.

The biologic half-life of styrene in humans is fairly short and corresponds with the disappearance of PGA from the urine. Styrene is widely used for synthesis of polymers such as plastics, rubbers, and surface coating. It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry. Styrene is commonly applied in the manufacturing of paints, pigments, and glues. Coexposure to other solvents, like toluene and ethyl acetate is common in workplaces where styrene is a concern. Since toluene and xylene are components of unleaded gasoline, workers at gas stations are at potential risk of exposure, as well as the general population.

Styrene exposure may interfere with peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones by inhibiting conversion of T4 to T3.

It may also affect DNA repair capacity and damage. There are also clinical associations with insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation.

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is plant-based essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained through the diet.

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is an essential n-3 fatty acid and must be obtained in the diet. Sources include green leafy vegetables, oily fish, flaxseed, soybean oil, canola oil, walnuts, and chia seeds. ALA has an 18-carbon backbone with 3 double bonds starting at the third carbon molecule (18:3n3). It is an important precursor to make eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), though these can also be obtained in the diet. Most dietary ALA is used to generate energy and only a small portion is converted to EPA and DHA.

This test measures pregnanediol, a metabolite of progesterone. It is used in the evaluation and decision making in women who are having difficulty becoming pregnant or maintaining a pregnancy. It is also used to monitor “high-risk” pregnancies.

Progesterone itself is not readily found in the urine. Instead, this test measures pregnanediol (a progesterone metabolite). Pregnanediol is well-established in research literature as a reliable marker for progesterone levels.

This test measures pregnanediol, a metabolite of progesterone. It is used in the evaluation and decision making in women who are having difficulty becoming pregnant or maintaining a pregnancy. It is also used to monitor “high-risk” pregnancies.

This test measures pregnanediol, a metabolite of progesterone. It is used in the evaluation and decision making in women who are having difficulty becoming pregnant or maintaining a pregnancy. It is also used to monitor “high-risk” pregnancies.

This is one of the three cortisol metabolites. The total some of the three cortisol metabolites gives us a good indication of the overall cortisol production in your body. 

Two of the 3 metabolites are the active form of cortisol (THF). The other metabolite is in the inactive form cortisone.

This particular marker (a-THF) hence is an active cortisol metabolite.

This is one of the three cortisol metabolites. The total some of the three cortisol metabolites gives us a good indication of the overall cortisol production in your body. 

Two of the 3 metabolites are the active form of cortisol (THF). The other metabolite is in the inactive form cortisone.

This particular marker (a-THF) hence is an active cortisol metabolite.

Metabolized cortisol is the sum of a-tetrahydrocortisol (a-THF), b-tetrahydrocortisol (b-THF), and b-tetrahydrocortisone (b-THE). They are a good indication of the total cortisol output from the adrenal gland or clearance out the body.