Butyrate is a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) produced in the colon by the bacterial fermentation of undigested carbohydrates, primarily dietary fiber. It serves as a primary energy source for colonocytes (cells of the colon) and has several important roles in maintaining gut health and overall well-being. 

This short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) is produced as a result of the fermentation of dietary fiber, particularly gums and pectins, by certain bacteria that inhabit the intestines (particularly probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacilli and Bifodobacteria species).

An n-butyrate level within the reference range is first and foremost then, an indicator that such health promoting bacteria are present in sufficient amounts.

Butyrate is arguably the most important SCFA, yet it comprises only 15-20% of total SCFA production. Butyrate enhances intestinal barrier function, acts as a fuel source for enterocytes, scavenges ammonia, regulates the immune system, reduces oxidative stress, and much more. Butyrate production is mostly associated with microbial fermentation of fibers such as bran, oligosaccharides, arabinoxylan, resistant starches, and others. Furthermore, butyrate production requires an acidic environment in the gut.

Butyricimonas represents a genus of bacteria within the gut microbiome that plays a pivotal role in intestinal health through its metabolic activities. These bacteria are anaerobic, Gram-negative, and belong to the phylum Bacteroidetes. They are notable for their ability to ferment polysaccharides, complex carbohydrates, and fibers, leading to the production of butyrate - a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) crucial for maintaining colonic health. Butyrate serves several key functions: it is the primary energy source for colonocytes (cells lining the colon), helps in maintaining the integrity of the gut barrier, possesses anti-inflammatory properties, and plays a role in modulating immune responses.

‘Butyrivibrio‘ is a genus of bacteria in Class Clostridia. Butyrivibrio crossotus are often found in the human gut and inversely associated with obesity.

‘Butyrivibrio‘ is a genus of bacteria in Class Clostridia. Butyrivibrio crossotus are often found in the human gut and inversely associated with obesity.

Doctors often suspect C. difficile in anyone who has diarrhea and who has other risk factors for C. difficile. 

Clostridium difficile (klos-TRID-e-um dif-uh-SEEL), also known as Clostridioides difficile and often referred to as C. difficile or C. diff, is a bacterium that can cause symptoms ranging from diarrhea to life-threatening inflammation of the colon.

C-Peptide, measured through the Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) method, represents a significant advancement in medical diagnostics, offering unparalleled accuracy in assessing pancreatic beta-cell function and insulin production. This test is crucial for differentiating type 1 and type 2 diabetes, as well as for identifying insulinoma, a rare pancreatic tumor. The C-Peptide test, especially when combined with LC/MS/MS technology, provides a highly sensitive and specific measure of C-Peptide levels, far surpassing traditional immunoassays in precision.

Other names: insulin C-peptide, connecting peptide insulin, proinsulin C-peptide

C-peptide is a substance made in the pancreas, along with insulin.

What is insulin?

Insulin is a hormone that controls the body's glucose (blood sugar) levels. Glucose is your body's main source of energy. If your body doesn't make the right amount of insulin, it may be a sign of diabetes.

Measuring C-peptide is an accurate way to find out how much insulin your body is making.

These are the reference ranges for C-Peptide, Ultrasensitive:

Adults 8:00 a.m. fasting: 0.4 - 2.1 ng/mL

2 Hours Post Prandial (Sustacal): 1.2 - 3.4 ng/mL

2 Hours Post Glucose: 2.0 - 4.5 ng/mL

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a liver-produced protein that rises in response to inflammation, and it is measured through a CRP or high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) test. The standard CRP test detects significant inflammation caused by infections or chronic diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, while the hs-CRP test is more sensitive and used primarily to assess cardiovascular risk. Elevated CRP levels indicate inflammation but do not specify its cause or location, requiring further diagnostic tests. CRP levels also help monitor treatment effectiveness for inflammatory conditions. High CRP is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, though lifestyle changes and medications like statins can help manage it. Despite the value of CRP as an inflammation marker, its levels can fluctuate due to various factors like smoking, obesity, and infections.

What is C-reactive protein (CRP)?

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a protein the liver produces in the presence of infection or inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis. When you have an infection, the white blood cells act to fight it by producing a number of proteins, some of which stimulate the liver to produce CRP. The blood level of CRP has been used for many years to evaluate the level of inflammation or infection.

How does CRP relate to cardiovascular risk?

Your level of C-reactive protein can be an indicator of how at risk you are for developing cardiovascular problems. This is because the development of atherosclerosis (laying down of cholesterol inside the blood vessel walls) is associated with inflammation within the vessel walls. The result is higher levels of CRP in patients with atherosclerosis than in those without atherosclerosis. 

Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and one of the few species of the Candida genus that cause the infection candidiasis in humans.

Albicans is a common member of human gut flora and is detectable in the gastrointestinal tract in 40% of healthy adults. The Candida antigen tests typically monitors three specific antibodies and the Candida antigen itself: IgG antibodies, IgA antibodies, IgM antibodies.

IgA antibodies

IgA is found in mucous secretions and is important in local (mucosal) immunity.Although representing only 15-20% of our human serum immunoglobulins, are the predominant antibody class found in seromucus secretions. High levels of specific IgA antibodies against Candida species as measured in serum are thought to be associated with mucosal epithelial, tracheobronchial, and genito-urinary candida infections.

Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and one of the few species of the Candida genus that cause the infection candidiasis in humans.

Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and one of the few species of the Candida genus that cause the infection candidiasis in humans.

C. difficile is an opportunistic anaerobic bacterium which causes symptoms ranging from mild diarrhea to pseudomembranous colitis when the normal flora has been altered (as in antibiotic use).

C. difficile produces two toxins:

- Toxin A is a tissuedamaging enterotoxin,

- while toxin B is referred to as a cytotoxin.