Homocysteine

Homocysteine (Hcy) is not a classic amino acid found in dietary protein. Homocysteine’s only source in humans is the demethylation of s-adenosylmethionine (SAM).

Homocysteine is a major branch point in the methylation pathway. It can be metabolized via two pathways: degraded irreversibly through the transsulfuration pathway or re-methylated back to methionine. These two pathways are greatly affected by vitamin and mineral cofactor availability and enzymatic SNPs. [L]

Transsulfuration is the main route for irreversible Homocysteine disposal. Transsulfuration begins when Homocysteine is converted to cystathionine, using the cystathionine β-synthase enzyme (CBS). This reaction requires nutrient cofactors, such as vitamin B6 and iron.

Alternatively, Homocysteine can be re-methylated back to methionine. [L] Two distinct routes exist for Hcy remethylation. The first reaction is dependent on folate and vitamin B12. The second route for Homocysteine remethylation is independent of folate, but requires betaine. The betaine pathway for Homocysteine remethylation is a salvage pathway when folate metabolism abnormalities are present or in folate deficiency. [L] Under normal conditions, the body will remethylate Homocysteine several times before allowing irreversible transsulfuration. [L]

Whereas SAM-dependent methylation occurs in nearly all tissues, the transsulfuration pathway and Homocysteine remethylation occur primarily in the liver and kidneys. [L]

Homocysteine intracellular concentration is under tight control. As mentioned above, SAH accumulation must be avoided as it can inhibit all methylation reactions. Because of AHCY’s reversible nature, it is mandatory that intracellular Homocysteine concentrations are kept within strict limits. Optimal Homocysteine concentrations in cells are maintained or re-established through folate-dependent remethylation.

Whenever the cellular capacity to metabolize Homocysteine is exceeded, this amino acid will be exported to the extracellular space until intracellular levels are normalized. This results in elevated plasma Homocysteine levels. Exceptions are liver and kidney cells, where Homocysteine can enter the transsulfuration pathway.

Several factors can affect Homocysteine metabolism causing hyperhomocysteinemia. These include B-vitamin deficiencies, impaired renal excretion, advanced age, sex (male), smoking, alcohol, and genetic enzyme deficiencies. [L]

Elevated homocysteine levels have many clinical implications:

- Hyperhomocysteinemia is regarded as a risk factor for non-coronary atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. Elevated homocysteine enhances vascular smooth-muscle cell proliferation, increases platelet aggregation, and acts on the coagulation cascade and fibrinolysis, causing normal endothelium to become more thrombotic. The mechanism may be related to elevations in SAH, due to the reversible nature of Hcy formation. [L] SAH has been shown to be a more sensitive marker in many diseases as previously outlined. [L], [L] 

- Diabetes, both type 1 and type 2, initially causes hypohomocysteinemia, due to renal hyperperfusion early in the diabetic nephropathy disease process. This progresses to hyperhomocysteinemia as renal function becomes compromised. [L], [L]

- Elevated homocysteine levels have also been implicated in gastrointestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease and colon cancer. [L], [L] Hyperhomocysteinemia may be partially due to nutrient malabsorption (methyl donor and B-vitamin deficiency). Subsequently, elevated Hcy has been shown to induce inflammatory cytokines and contribute to disease progression. [L]

- Homocysteine can impair bone health by interfering with osteoclast activity. The increased Hcy impairs the cellular and molecular mechanism of bone marrow- derived osteoclasts by causing imbalance between phosphorylation and de-phosphorylation of various protein kinases that modulate bone cell remodeling. [L]

Homocysteinemia contributes to neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases) and mood disorders. [L], [L], [L]

Elevated Hcy increases CNS phosphorylated tau leading to increased neurofibrillary tangle formation, seen in Alzheimer’s dementia. [L]

Hyperhomocysteinemia related to mood disorders may be multifactorial. Elevated Hcy causes elevations in SAH, which interferes

with many methyltransferase reactions involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and metabolism. Hcy may also have direct neurotoxic effects. Research is ongoing regarding the exact mechanisms regarding Hcy and psychiatric disorders. [L], [L]

Possible treatmenet options:

Dietary supplementation with folate, vitamin B12, and SAM has been shown to effectively lower plasma homocysteine levels and improve outcomes. [L], [L], [L]

Additional Note:

When referring to Hcy, the terms ‘homocysteine’ and ‘homocystine’ are used interchangeably. However, the reduced sulfhydryl form is ‘homocysteine,’ while the oxidized disulfide form is ‘homocystine.’ The composite of both forms are routinely described by the term ‘homocysteine. [L]

Most conventional laboratories that offer homocysteine measurement are actually measuring a total of homocystine, homocysteine, and SAH. To note, Genova’s Methylation Panel measures SAH and homocysteine as separate clinically significant entities. Homocystine (an oxidized form of homocysteine) is not measured by Genova. SAH and homocystine levels are negligible as compared to homocysteine, though direct comparisons have not yet been done by Genova.

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